Archive/File: pub/people/m/mock.karen/perspectives-on-racism Last-Modified: 1996/04/09 Anti-Semitism in Canada: Realities, Remedies, and Implications for Anti-Racism Karen R. Mock Many involved in anti-racism work would say that anti- Semitism is not racism and that it is not systemic in our society; they argue that Jews, though they can be from many different racial backgrounds, are primarily white and members of the power structure, and thus cannot be victims of racism. While most Jews would acknowledge what can be called their 'white privilege' in a racist society, I believe that there has been, and is currently, a powerful racist component in anti-Semitism, and that anti-Semitism must thus be on the anti-racism agenda. In addition to dealing with the present manifestations of anti-Semitism, and possible responses to it, this chapter will attempt to trace its history and its change from a primarily religious to a primarily racist phenomenon. An understanding of the meaning and evolution of anti-Semitism, and of its current expression in Canada, should help make clear the relationship of anti-Semitism to other expressions of racism in our community. THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF ANTI-SEMITISM What Is Anti-Semitism? Anti-Semitism can be defined most simply as hostility directed at Jews solely because they are Jews (Anti- Defamation League 1989). In spite of what anti-Semites profess, anti-Semitism is not caused by the actions or beliefs of Jews, but rather is a result of attitudes and behaviour that arise regardless of what Jews do or believe. Anti-Semites are antagonistic to Jews for who they are and what they represent, and this antagonism has an ancient history. The roots of anti-Semitism go back to ancient times, when the religion of the Jews first began to distinguish them from their neighbours (Patterson 1982). Indeed, the roots can be found in the Hebrew Bible itself. According to Schoeps (1963), 'the anti-Semitic polemic of the nations of the world goes back to early antiquity - to be exact, to Haman's vexation that here was a nation with laws differing from the law of every nation.' While the other peoples of the ancient Near East worshipped many gods, the Jews (first called Hebrews, then Israelites) had only one god, who was invisible, had delivered them from slavery in Egypt to their land, and created the laws by which they lived. Unlike those around them, the Jews regarded their God as so holy that they refused to make statues or images of God, and dared not speak God's name. Although the term 'anti-Semitism' is only about one hundred years old, the prejudice it describes was clear in writings dating from as early as 300 BCE 1 Patterson (1982) points out that one Alexandrian writer of that period even challenged the claim of the Jews that they had escaped from slavery in Egypt, writing that they had been expelled because they were lepers. Alexandrian writers accused Jews of every imaginable offence, claiming they were traitors for not worshipping the city gods, and even accusing them of killing human beings for religious reasons (a practice strictly forbidden in Judaism, even during the times of sacrificial cults). Apion, living in the third century BCE, was the first to accuse the Jews of ritual murder, a charge that was to be repeated, often with disastrous effects on Jewish communities, in later centuries. Jewish monotheism continued to clash with the polytheistic practices of Rome and other cultures. When Jews were granted certain rights to practise their religion, resentment would often increase, many in the population labelling them 'clannish' or even 'hostile.' Foremost among Roman anti- Semites was the historian Tacitus. Patterson notes that Tacitus called Jewish religious practices 'rites contrary to those of all other men' and claimed that they were 'sinister, shameful and have survived only because of their perversity' (1982: 6). Patterson goes on to suggest that 'like most anti-Semites then and later, [Tacitus] did not seem to know very much about Judaism, and was certain that Jews worshipped donkeys which they consecrated in their temples.' In 135 AD (CE), Jews were barred from their holy city, Jerusalem, and could only approach as far as the outer wall of the temple (the Wailing Wall, now known as the Western Wall). The Roman emperor banned circumcision, and passed laws to isolate the Jews even further, just as Christianity was beginning to spread through the empire. The Christian Roots of Anti-Semitism A detailed history and analysis of the evolution of anti- Semitism is beyond the scope of this chapter, but some mention of the role of the Christian church is essential. Jesus was a Jew, faithful to the law of Moses and the teachings of the prophets. He was called 'Rabbi'; his last words on the cross were from the psalms. Like other Jews who were religious nationalists, the Roman government considered Jesus a threat because of his preaching and the increasing size of his following. On Jesus' Passover trip to Jerusalem the Roman procurator ordered his arrest and execution. His followers, the Nazarenes, continued to practise Judaism until many years later, when Paul, who had never met Jesus, transformed his teachings, removed most of the traditional Jewish practices, and laid the foundation for a Christianity that became separate from and hostile to the very Judaism out of which it emerged. By the time the Gospels were written they reflected this increasing bias against traditional Judaism, and told the story of Jesus in such a way that it seemed the real enemies of Jesus were not- Gentiles, or even the Romans who put him to death, but the Jews. With each successive author of the Gospels, the Jews were increasingly, though falsely, painted as the persecutors of Jesus and those who drove him to his death. According to Patterson (1982) it was in this way that hostility against the Jewish mainstream resulting from the fierce competition in the first century between early Christianity and Judaism (or, until Paul, between two different sects of Judaism) became a permanent part of the Christian Bible and later of Christian teaching and ritual. Thus, generations of Christians to this day have grown up influenced by the negative pictures of Jews painted in these scriptures (and literally painted as menacing stereotypes of evil in frescos and murals on church walls) - sources that many Christians, with no understanding of either the historical context or the historical facts, consider to be sacred and infallible accounts of history. Anti-Semitism in the Middle Ages Repetitive cycles of pogroms, expulsions, and massacres throughout the ages continued to isolate Jews, making them increasingly fearful and suspicious of the Christian world that surrounded them, and forcing them to cling even more strongly to their faith for survival. The Crusaders massacred tens of thousands. England expelled them in 1290 and France in 1306, with many German towns shortly following suit. They were slaughtered in retaliation for their rumoured causing of the Black Death in Europe, and there were countless burnings at the stake for alleged ritual murders. In spite of forced conversions in Spain, the killings continued there because of suspicions of 'bad blood' and of the secret practice of Judaism. The Inquisition saw thousands burned at the stake or abused, imprisoned, and stripped of their property ('More than one pyre blazed; and the blood sacrifices of the Inquisition are without number' [Schoeps 1963: 36]). Spain and Portugal expelled all Jews in 1492 under penalty of death. Some were welcomed in Turkey and Italy. Continued persecutions and expulsions from Germany and other western European countries meant that the only safe havens for Jews were Poland, Lithuania, Galicia, and the Ukraine, until the Ukrainian Cossacks ravaged Poland and destroyed seven hundred Jewish communities in 1648. The surviving remnants found their way back to some of the western European countries, including Germany, where they lived under lock and key in walled ghettos. Those who did not go to the cities remained impoverished in small farming villages in Eastern Europe. Enforced segregation strengthened Jewish solidarity and devotion to religious study, but it isolated Jews from the larger society and made them objects of ridicule. They were no longer feared as a danger to Christian society, but were demeaned in art and literature, reviled in sermons, and mocked in public. Locked up in ghettos and isolated in rural towns, they were closed off from the effects of sweeping political, cultural, and religious changes that brought Europe into the modern era between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. Moreover, Martin Luther and his followers continued to preach a virulent anti-Semitism. It is not surprising that the first-large scale Nazi pogrom - 'Kristallnacht' in November 1938 'was performed in honour of the anniversary of Luther's birthday' (Hay 1950:169). The widespread use of the printing press contributed to the flooding of Europe with anti-Semitic pamphlets and books. So-called enlightened philosophers advocated equal rights for all people, but advised Jews to abandon their customs and merge with the Christian majority. Voltaire, an avowed Jew-hater, wrote that they were the 'enemies of mankind' and were fully deserving of all the persecutions and massacres that came their way. Nevertheless, the Enlightenment was ultimately beneficial for Jews. Its emphasis on equal rights, and the French and American revolutions, led to the Jews' emancipation from the ghettos to take their part as 'equals' in European society. Anti-Semitism as Racism Emancipation was a mixed blessing for the Jews. Previously denied the vote, land ownership, or access to trade, industry, or education, they were now permitted both citizenship and access to the benefits it conferred Such benefits, however, did not give Jews equality. Rather, Jewish progress inflamed anti-Semitism. Fear and hatred of Jews festered and took on a racial rather than a religious dimension. That is, Jews were now resented simply for being Jews, and even changing their religion did not help. The modern age of 'racial anti-Semitism' had arrived. As the 1988 document prepared by the Pontifical Commission of the Vatican, 'The Church and Racism,' indicates, the development of modern racist theory can be traced to the attempts by colonial conquerors and slavers to 'justify their actions.' This pseudo-scientific theory 'sought to deduce an essential difference of a hereditary biological nature, in order to affirm that the subjugated peoples belong to intrinsically inferior "races" with regard to their mental, moral, or social qualities. It was at the end of the 18th century that the word "race" was used for the first time to classify human beings biologically' (sect. 3, para. 5) It did not take long for European racial theorists to apply such ideology to the traditional 'other' in their midst - the Jews. Leading the way were some of the principal figures of the so-called Enlightenment, such as Voltaire, who held that Jews could not be assimilated into European culture. From the perspective of the secular theoreticians of race, there simply was no solution to 'the Jewish problem.' Jews were now no longer simply 'reprobates' or 'unbelievers.' They were subhuman. Racial anti-Semitism had considerable acceptance in pre- Second World War Germany. The National Socialist totalitarian party made racist ideology the basis of its program to eliminate all those deemed to belong to an 'inferior race,' among whom were Jews, Blacks, and Slavs. As Fisher (1990) points out, one had only to re-define a group out of the category of 'human' in order to lose all bonds of moral hesitancy on what a dominant group could or would do to a minority group. While the situation in pre-Nazi Germany seems remote from Canada in the nineties, the rise in anti-Semitism and the strengthening of right wing hate groups across the country permit analogies to be drawn. One is the connection between hate propaganda and the rise in racism and anti-Semitism. CURRENT MANIFESTATIONS OF ANTI-SEMITISM IN CANADA Hate Propaganda and Racism Hate propaganda is unabashedly racist. It portrays selected groups as inferior, as less than human, while at the same time undermining the norms and values of a society. The targets of racist hate propaganda are the traditional objects of prejudice and stereotyping, who are often characterized as taking advantage of the rest of society and posing a threat that must be removed. Hate mongering, now as always, finds its most receptive audience among those who are looking for someone to blame for their problems. Difficult economic times inevitably lead to this pattern of scapegoating, and any identifiable minority group is at risk. At such risk are many Canadians today. As we have seen, Jews have been the traditional scapegoats throughout the history of the Western world. Indeed, anti- Semitism can be considered the prototype of racism. Denied citizenship, the vote, land ownership, housing, and employment, Jews have been blamed for the Plague, for partnership with the Devil, for ritual murder, for international economic and political conspiracy, and for every form of economic, social, and political upheaval. The proliferation of hate propaganda, in the form of speeches, pamphlets, brochures, and stereotyped cartoons and 'jokes,' was usually the prelude to pogroms or expulsions. The most dramatic example of the impact of hate propaganda was, of course, the Holocaust. The Nazi dissemination of hate propaganda and the promotion of hatred against Jews was so successful that many peoples across Europe participated enthusiastically in the - Nazi attempts to systematically murder them. There are more subtle implications. Hate propaganda promotes a negative self-image in members of the targeted group, often to the point of self-hatred and feelings of worthlessness. Individuals may try to assimilate and 'disappear' as an identifiable group, though hate mongers would suggest that this is impossible. According to avowed racists and white supremacists, the minority traits always remain as a contaminant of the society or pure race, and must therefore be eliminated to whatever extent possible. How well individuals and groups tolerate such abuse depends on the strength of one's self-image and on the group support available. But the effect of singling out the group from the rest of society achieves the hate monger's goal, regardless of the personal effects on the group and its members. As Ian Kagedan (1991) has pointed out, even when the audience is unreceptive, hate propaganda can do damage by playing on people's doubts and fears, feeding on misconceptions, and increasing the barriers to understanding. Hate propaganda contributes to disunity in society, compromises democratic values, and maintains inequality and oppression. It is ironic that hate propagandists are among the most outspoken advocates of free-speech, while they use that freedom to deny others their freedom. Hate propaganda is most certainly not a free speech issue. It is the promotion of hatred against an identifiable group, and in Canada it is against the law. Legislation against hate mongering existed in pre-Hitler Germany, but because it was not enforced, racism and anti-Semitism went unchecked. Hate Propaganda and Anti-Semitism: Canadian Realities Racism and hate propaganda have long been part of the Canadian experience. Many European settlers and clerics held, and propagated, the view that Aboriginal peoples were intellectually or morally inferior to white Europeans, or that they were damned because they were outside the limits of the Eurocentric religious vision. These views were often used to justify the abuses perpetrated on Native peoples. Some of those abuses continue to this day. This campaign of dehumanization, detribalization, and marginalization has been enormously effective. It has largely prevented those who committed the abuses from being punished, and has resulted in profound despair amongst Native Canadians. The high rates of suicide and alcoholism in many Native communities are a direct consequence of the racist attitudes that have prevailed for almost half a millennium. In addition to the racist attitudes towards the First Nations, there was rampant anti-Semitism in Canada's early history. This is not surprising considering that the early immigrants to this country brought with them the intellectual baggage of Europe, where Jew-hatred was a way of life. Regular attacks on Judaism and the Jewish community appeared in "Semaine religieuse de Quebec" and in other religious publications, and the infamous anti-Semitic forgery, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, was promoted by various religious leaders in Canada. From 1910 through the 1940s prominent Canadians like Edouard Plamandon, Adrian Arcand, Goldwin Smith, Henri Bourassa, and Mackenzie King were associated with virulent anti-Semitism, taking such stands as justifying Russian pogroms against the Jews, openly praising Hitler, and denying safety in Canada to Jews fleeing Nazi persecution. During this period many other minority groups were also victimized by hate propaganda, most notably the Sikhs and Chinese. Canada also witnessed the rise of hate groups during the pre- war years. The 1920s and 1930s saw the development of the Ku Klux Klan and the formation of the Western Guard and Aryan Nations (Barrett 1987). Such groups promoted hatred against, among others, Catholics, Blacks, and Jews. It was not uncommon in those days to see signs along the beaches or other 'restricted' areas in Toronto or Montreal that read 'No Dogs or Jews Allowed.' There was a postwar decline in overt racism and anti- Semitism in Canada. However, with recent increases in immigration, the reduction of systemic racism in the immigration regulations, and the development of policies of multiculturalism and bilingualism, there has been an upsurge in hate-group activity and hate propaganda. Recently, the Klan has been implicated in the anti-Mohawk agitation in Quebec; Klan propaganda has been distributed in some Montreal schools and the Eastern Townships; anti-immigration white-supremacist telephone 'hate lines' have attracted attention in Vancouver, Winnipeg, and Toronto; racist skinheads have rallied regularly and have been implicated in or convicted of a number of racially motivated crimes; there have been various KKK-style cross-burnings; and Holocaust denial has become a new form of anti-Semitism in schools and public venues across the country There is evidence of active recruitment by racist organizations of young people in high schools. The League for Human Rights of B'nai Brith began documenting reported incidents of anti-Semitic vandalism and harassment in 1982. Over the last several years there has been a dramatic increase; the 1993 total was the highest in twelve years, and represented a 200-per-cent increase since 1988. In 1994 there were 290 reported incidents of harassment and vandalism, representing a 12 per cent increase over 1993 This was the highest number-of such incidents reported by the League in thirteen years of documentation. The League's annual Audit of Anti-Semitic Incidents serves as a barometer of racism in Canada. Members of the Black, Chinese, and South Asian communities also report an increase in racism directed towards their communities, and both the increase in the number of cases before the Human Rights Commission and the courts and reports from various multicultural and anti- racist organizations, as well as statistics from recently created police hatecrimes units, corroborate our findings. Yet another disturbing trend has emerged in recent years. There are more reports both of anti-Semitic workplace harassment and of the indefinable feelings of marginalization and alienation that occur when systemic discrimination exists. This kind of anti-Semitism is much more difficult to document and to resolve than overt incidents, but the emotional stress and personal anguish are palpable. ANTI-SEMITISM/ANTI-RACISM - WHAT CAN BE DONE? I believe that there is no one effective way to fight hatred and hate mongering, but that we can and should use whatever strategies we have at our disposal. The three most important tools we can use are the law, community action, and education.[2] Anti-Racism Remedies in Law Hate propaganda, defined as 'the promotion of hatred against identifiable groups,' became a criminal offence in Canada in 1970, when laws against it were adopted as amendments to the Criminal Code (sections 318-320). In that same year, Canada ratified the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which had been adopted by the UN in 1965 and signed by Canada in 1966. The Canadian Human Rights Act and various provincial human-rights acts also address the issue of hate propaganda. While the League for Human Rights and several other organizations, as well as many studies and commissions, have proposed changes to strengthen the effectiveness of the existing legislation (a summary and analysis of which are beyond the scope of the present chapter), there is almost universal agreement on the need for effective laws to deal with hate propaganda. The catalyst for such legislation was undoubtedly the Holocaust. It showed the world that unchecked racism and hate propaganda could lead even a highly educated and cultured society to justify the most heinous crimes against humanity. The Canadian anti-hate laws in the Criminal Code are the result of years of debate concerning the balance between individual and group rights. The premise underlying Canada's hate-propaganda laws is that in a democratic society identifiable groups must be protected against racism, including its verbal manifestation, so that those groups' basic freedoms and thereby their full participation in Canadian society are not limited. This notion is not only consistent with our international obligation under the United Nations Convention, but is based on our vision of a multicultural society, a vision entrenched in the Canadian Bill of Rights (1960) and articulated clearly in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982), sections 15 and 27. Keegstra in Alberta and Andrews and Smith in Ontario were charged and convicted under the hate-propaganda laws. Although the respective provincial Courts of Appeal reached opposite conclusions on the constitutionality of section 19 of the Charter, in 1990 the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the hate-propaganda legislation, albeit by the narrowest majority. Concern for the values inherent in sections 15 and 27 of the Charter, and for those in the international agreements to which Canada is a signatory, played a significant role in that decision, which underscored the need to preserve the delicate balance between individual and group rights that is the mark of a free and democratic society. There are those who insist that taking hate mongers to court gives them a platform, and who thus discourage such prosecutions and their attendant publicity. Such detractors need to be reminded that had the hate laws on the books in pre-Nazi Germany been implemented with effective penalties, the hate propaganda that led to the most violent racism in history might have been halted. It is essential to continue to prosecute hate mongers and to impose penalties that will serve as deterrents. When the Alberta Court of Appeal overturned the Keegstra decision, there was a dramatic increase in hate-group activity and in the dissemination of hate propaganda in Western Canada. By the same token, it is possible that the recent decline in the severity of anti- Semitic incidents is a direct result of the Supreme Court's decision, of the increased awareness and vigilance of police, and of longer sentences for those convicted. Community Action Against Racism and Anti-Semitism The League for Human Rights of B'nai Brith encourages legal action to combat hate propaganda, but has also demonstrated during recent years that coordinated community response is effective in fighting racism. In 1989 the first Canada Day Aryan Fest took place in Minden, Ontario. The citizens of Minden stood up against racism with a campaign spearheaded by Reverend Edward Moll of the United Church, supported by the Minden Times and the League for Human Rights, all under the supervision of the local police. The League assisted the residents to create a human-rights committee to develop local policies and guidelines to combat hate mongers in the future. A year later, the 1990 Canada Day Aryan Fest attracted close to 250 skinheads and white supremacists to Metcalfe, a small town near Ottawa. The League gathered a multicultural coalition of concerned citizens to rally against racism on the steps of the Parliament Buildings and to march out to the property to protest the rise of racism and the distribution of hate propaganda. Once again, the police monitored the activities of the racists, and the League's presence was felt. Because of the adverse publicity, the property owners did not allow the white supremacists to return the following year. Instead, the League for Human Rights sponsored a Multicultural Anti-racist Youth Leadership Camp, and made anti-racism, rather than racism, newsworthy. Young people learned how to stand up against racism in their schools and community organizations. In 1992 in Toronto, the Heritage Front opened an anti- immigration 'hate-line' that included racist diatribes against the Black and Native communities. They spread hate pamphlets throughout Toronto's downtown Riverdale neighbourhood to recruit members. The League for Human Rights responded to a request for help by assisting with the filing of a complaint with the Canadian Human Rights Commission (similar to one filed by the League against the KKK in Winnipeg) and by putting a group of concerned citizens in touch with the police, the Urban Alliance on Race Relations, the Native Canadian Centre, and others. Neighbourhood Watch issued a counter-pamphlet, advising their neighbours to report any suspicious people and to take action against efforts at recruitment, particularly of young people. An ad hoc working group, calling itself Citizens Against Racism, met regularly and planned a 'Rally Against Racism' to commemorate March 21st, the International Day for the Elimination of Racism. A rainbow coalition of speakers from the First Nations, Black, Chinese, Jewish, and Sikh communities, among others, exemplified--the motto on the B'nai Brith banner: 'We will not be silent.' Coordinated community action not only raises awareness and increases vigilance, but it also reduces fear and promotes security and solidarity in the fight against racism and anti- Semitism. Anti-Racism Education Is the Key The battle against racism and anti-Semitism will ultimately be won through increased efforts to incorporate multicultural, anti-racist, and human-rights education in our schools and to start this training as early as possible. Many school boards have race and ethnocultural equity policies on the books, but lack of in-service training of teachers and administrators often leaves staff powerless in knowing how to handle incidents of racism, and may even result in the staff being as much part of the problem as part of the solution. There is a need for education and awareness at every level of the educational system, from early childhood through post-secondary, from teachers' federations to the ministries and departments of education. Students must be helped to standup to racism instead of being either victims or perpetrators of harassment. Teachers must be given the skills to identify and handle expressions of racism and to develop a curriculum that is both pro- active and anti-racist. We must turn Holocaust denial into Holocaust education, and cries of 'reverse discrimination' into advocacy for organizational change, employment, and educational equity. Through human-rights and anti-racism workshops, the League has seen children's behaviour change; its Student Human Rights Achievement Awards have demonstrated what they are capable of understanding. Organizations are clearly grappling with change through policy development and implementation. The effective leadership of dedicated principals, teachers, managers, and workers is evident. But there has also been tremendous resistance and backlash. We have a long way to go. But there is room for optimism Recently the Ontario Anti- Racism Secretariat of the Ministry of Citizenship declared unequivocally that anti-Semitism is on its agenda. The Secretariat is increasing its networking efforts with local police to monitor hate-group activity, and has published the League for Human Right's 'Combatting Hate' guidelines on actions to be taken against racism and anti-Semitism, along with the League's Incident Reporting Form, which is designed to encourage groups to work together and to come forward without fear to report racist and anti-Semitic incidents. The Department of Immigration has recently prevented the notorious Holocaust denier, David Irving from entering Canada for his annual hate-promoting tour. The Solicitor- General has issued guidelines for gathering statistics on racially motivated crime, and policing services across Canada are creating hate-crimes units to monitor such crimes, assist victims appropriately, and conduct public education in schools, on campus, and throughout communities. The Ontario minister of education agreed to thoroughly investigate Paul Fromm - a known white supremacist and neo- Nazi who has hurled racial slurs against Aboriginal peoples at public meetings, whose hero is Hitler (he has celebrated his birthday at a meeting of the Heritage Front), and who continues to teach history and English for the Peel Board of Education (though he has been taken from the regular classroom and placed in adult education). There are signs of progress, however slow. CONCLUSION Is anti-Semitism racism? Yes and no. Attacks against Jews come from two distinct sources, religious and racial. Therefore, the word 'racism' is not wholly applicable; but neither is the term 'religious intolerance' sufficient.[3] Clearly, neither the attacks nor the basis on which they are made are acceptable. Though it is true that people of colour are more often subjected to racist attacks and systemic discrimination than are Jews (regardless of their colour or their visibility by virtue of dress), it is also true that, because of its religious dimension, the hatred directed against Jews differs from that directed against visible minorities. But racism is racism, and, as has been pointed out, racism has been, and continues to be, a clear component of anti-Semitism. Coming up with a satisfactorily precise term for discrimination against Jews may be difficult, but the accepted term is anti-Semitism That it is a consequence of racist hatemongering is not in question. And racism is rarely limited to one group. It usually doesn't come in the singular. Someone who is anti-Black is also likely to be anti-Jewish. If a school system marginalizes children of colour, it is not likely to have an inclusive curriculum that values children of all religions. When we have both individual and systemic discrimination to fight, quibbling over terminology is divisive and destructive. It's time to stop arguing about the wording and to get down to ending racism, anti-Semitism, and all forms of discrimination once and for all. Policies and practices designed to eliminate racism must also be applied to eliminating anti-Semitism and to raising awareness of its continuing existence - in order to eradicate it. We can look back to our own past and to world history to see how far we've come, but let us recognize that we still have a way to go. Legislation and enforcement have taken us a long way, and will continue to be essential in the battle against racism and anti-Semitism Because of our laws and codes, the restrictive signs on our beaches are gone. But legislation is never enough. Community action and education will reduce prejudice and promote understanding and unity. I believe that we will overcome hatred and bigotry only when the vision that to be Canadian is to be part of a uniquely multicultural society is universally shared. NOTES 1. Since BC means 'before Christ,' and AD 'anno Domini,' the year of our Lord, it has become inclusive practice to use the abbreviations BCE (Before the Common Era) and CE (the Common Era). 2. Portions of this section have been adapted from: Karen Mock 'Combatting Hate - Canadian Realities and Remedies,' Canadian Human Rights Forum (Ottawa), Summer 1992. 3. This concept is elaborated in Lorne Shipman and Karen Mock, 'It's Time to Stop Playing with Words and Fight Racism,' Canadian Jewish News, February 1992 Karen R. Mock, Ph D, is the national director of the League for Human Rights of B'nai Brith Canada, a national agency dedicated to combating racism and bigotry. A registered psychologist, she specializes in human development, interpersonal communication, multiculturalism, and race relations, and lectures, conducts research, seminars, and workshops, as well as publishing in these areas. Before joining the League, Mock worked as a consultant and, for twenty years, in teacher education at the University of Toronto, Ryerson Polytechnical University, and York University. Currently, she oversees research on hate groups and anti-Semitism in Canada, intercultural and interfaith dialogue, and related issues in education and the criminal justice system. Mock is the past president of the Ontario Multicultural Association, a former member of the board of the Urban Alliance on Race Relations, and past chair of the Canadian Multiculturalism Advisory Committee. Work Cited James, Carl E. Ed. Perspectives on Racism and the Human Services Sector: A Case for Change. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996. Chapter 6
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